MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
UNIVERSITY OF DANANG
HỒ TRỊNH QUỲNH THƯ
A COGNITIVE STUDY OF EXPRESSIONS OF
METAPHOR OF LOVE IN ENGLISH VERSUS
VIETNAMESE
DOCTORAL THESIS
IN SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES
Da Nang, 2018
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
UNIVERSITY OF DANANG
HỒ TRỊNH QUỲNH THƯ
A COGNITIVE STUDY OF EXPRESSIONS OF
METAPHOR OF LOVE IN ENGLISH VERSUS
VIETNAMESE
Major: ENGLISH LINGUISTICS
Code: 62.22.02.01
DOCTORAL THESIS
IN SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HU
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MANITIES
SUPERVISOR: Assoc.Prof. Dr. Phan Văn Hịa
Da Nang, 2018
i
STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP
Except where bibliography is made in the text, the dissertation contains no
material published elsewhere or extracted in whole or in part from another author’s
thesis or document. It does not comprise any parts by which I have qualified for or
been awarded another degree or diploma.
This dissertation is also assured that it has not been submitted for the award of
any degree or diploma in any other tertiary institution.
Da Nang, January 2018
Hồ Trịnh Quỳnh Thư
ii
ABSTRACT
The dissertation is carried out in the light of the conceptual metaphor theory
fathered by Lakoff and Johnson (1980). It aims at investigating and comparing the
expressions of metaphor of romantic love in three linguistic dimensions- space, time
and sensory perceptions- of English and Vietnamese modern poetry. The study uses
the metaphor identification procedures raised by Charteris Black (2004), Pragglejaz
Group (2007) and Steen (1999) to minimize the mistakes and increase the believability
of its results of linguistic and conceptual metaphor identification. Besides,
technological tools, namely SPSS20 and Microsoft Excel 2013, are also applied to the
analysis process of 3300 samples (1650 in each language) collected from 547 love
poems. The finding is that love is conceptualized in terms of 21 conceptual metaphors
in English and Vietnamese. Especially, one more source domain that is used for love
in Vietnamese but not uncovered in our English data is sight. It is one of the
differences found between English and Vietnamese conceptualization of love via the
language of space, time and sensory perceptions. Interestingly, 7 of 22 these source
domains are considered partly or wholly new, including climate, drug, life, music,
sight, source of energy, and time. Besides, the expressions of metaphor of love are
also determined both conventional and novel. The novelty is manifested via four
techniques- extending, elaboration, questioning, and combination, which once again
proves the creativity and imaginativeness in poetic language. In addition, the study
also finds it that not only the conceptual metaphors but the spatial, temporal and
sensory terms used to express love are similar between English and Vietnamese. The
similarities may result from the universality of conceptual metaphor and the
objectiveness of natural world. However, language is a cultural factor and directly
under the effects of culture. Metaphor is the reflection of individual thoughts and
experiences. As a result, the ways to express love identified in our study are different
between these two languages.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP ................................................................................. i
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................ iii
ABBREVIATIONS AND TYPOGRAPHICAL CONVENTIONS....................... viii
LIST OF THE TABLES .................................................................................................. ix
LIST OF THE FIGURES ................................................................................................ xi
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1
1.1. Rationale ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Aims and objectives of the study .............................................................................. 4
1.2.1. Aims of the study ....................................................................................... 4
1.2.2. Objectives of the study .............................................................................. 4
1.3. Research questions ...................................................................................................... 4
1.4. Focus and scope of the study ..................................................................................... 5
1.4.1. Focus of the study ..................................................................................... 5
1.4.2. Scope of the study ..................................................................................... 6
1.5. Justification for the study .......................................................................................... 7
1.5.1. Theoretical significance of the study ........................................................ 7
1.5.2. Practical significance of the study ........................................................... 8
1.6. Organization of the study ........................................................................................... 9
1.7. Summary .................................................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
............................................................................................................................................. 13
2.1. Theoretical background ........................................................................................... 13
2.1.1. The conceptual metaphor theory (CMT) ................................................ 14
2.1.1.1. The systematicity of conceptual metaphors .................................... 14
2.1.1.2. Partialness of conceptual metaphors. .............................................. 15
iv
2.1.1.3. Metaphorical coherence and understanding ................................... 16
2.1.1.4. Cognitive mechanism of conceptual metaphors ............................. 18
2.1.1.5. Types of conceptual metaphors ...................................................... 19
2.1.1.6. Limitations of the CMT .................................................................. 20
2.1.2. Recent development in conceptual metaphor ......................................... 21
2.1.2.1. Categorization view of metaphor .................................................... 22
2.1.2.2. Blending theory of metaphor .......................................................... 22
2.1.2.3. Neural theory of metaphor .............................................................. 24
2.1.2.4. The view based on the main meaning focus ................................... 25
2.1.3. Expression of metaphor .......................................................................... 26
2.1.4. Metaphor and culture ............................................................................. 26
2.1.5. Metaphor in literature and in poetry ...................................................... 27
2.1.6. Concepts of space, time and sensory perceptions .................................. 31
2.1.6.1. Space ............................................................................................... 31
2.1.6.2. Time ................................................................................................ 32
2.1.6.3. Sensory perception .......................................................................... 32
2.1.7. Love as an emotion ................................................................................. 33
2.1.8. Conceptual metaphors of love ................................................................ 34
2.2. Previous studies of metaphors of love .................................................................... 37
2.3. Summary .................................................................................................................... 42
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................ 44
3.1. Research design ......................................................................................................... 44
3.1.1. Inductive approach ................................................................................. 44
3.1.2. Qualitative and quantitative methods .................................................... 45
3.1.3. Descriptive and contrastive methods ..................................................... 46
v
3.1.3.1. Descriptive method ......................................................................... 46
3.1.3.2. Contrastive method ......................................................................... 47
3.2. Data collection ............................................................................................................ 47
3.2.1. Sources of data ....................................................................................... 48
3.2.2. Identification of linguistic metaphors .................................................... 49
3.2.2.1 Charteris-Black’s method ................................................................ 50
3.2.2.2 MIP and MIPVU .............................................................................. 51
3.2.3. Identification of conceptual metaphors .................................................. 54
3.2.4. Identification of novel metaphors of love ............................................... 55
3.3. Data analysis .............................................................................................................. 56
3.3.1. Statistical analysis tool ........................................................................... 56
3.3.2. Data analysis procedure ........................................................................ 60
3.4. Summary .................................................................................................................... 62
CHAPTER 4. EXPRESSIONS OF METAPHOR OF LOVE IN ENGLISH
POETRY ............................................................................................................................ 63
4.1. General description ................................................................................................... 63
4.2. English spatial language used to express love ....................................................... 65
4.2.1. English terms of location used to express love ...................................... 65
4.2.2. English terms of configuration used to express love .............................. 69
4.2.3. English terms of movement used to express love ................................... 72
4.3. English temporal language used to express love .................................................. 76
4.3.1. English chronological terms used to express love ................................. 76
4.3.2. English kairotic terms used to express love ........................................... 79
4.4. English sensory language used to express love ..................................................... 84
4.4.1. English terms of visual perception used to express love ........................ 84
4.4.2. English terms of tactile perception used to express love ....................... 87
vi
4.4.3. English terms of gustatory perception used to express love .................. 91
4.4.4. English terms of olfactory perception used to express love ................... 93
4.4.5. English terms of auditory perception used to express love .................... 94
4.5. Novelty of love metaphors in English poetry ........................................................ 97
4.5.1. Novelty of conceptual metaphors of love in English poetry ................... 97
4.5.2. Novel use of love metaphors in English poetry ...................................... 99
4.6. Summary .................................................................................................................. 102
CHAPTER 5. EXPRESSIONS OF METAPHOR OF LOVE IN VIETNAMESE
POETRY .......................................................................................................................... 103
5.1. General description ................................................................................................. 103
5.2. Vietnamese spatial language used to express love ............................................. 105
5.2.1. Vietnamese terms of location used to express love .............................. 105
5.2.2. Vietnamese terms of configuration used to express love...................... 108
5.2.3. Vietnamese terms of movement used to express love ........................... 112
5.3. Vietnamese temporal language used to express love ......................................... 116
5.3.1. Vietnamese chronological terms used to express love ......................... 117
5.3.2. Vietnamese kairotic terms used to express love ................................... 120
5.4. Vietnamese sensory language used to express love ............................................ 123
5.4.1. Vietnamese terms of visual perception used to express love ................ 124
5.4.2. Vietnamese terms of tactile perception used to express love ............... 126
5.4.3. Vietnamese terms of gustatory perception used to express love .......... 129
5.4.4. Vietnamese terms of olfactory perception used to express love ........... 130
5.4.5. Vietnamese terms of auditory perception used to express love ............ 131
5.5. Novelty of love metaphors in Vietnamese poetry ............................................... 132
5.5.1. Novelty of conceptual metaphors of love in Vietnamese poetry .......... 132
5.5.2. Novel use of love metaphors in Vietnamese poetry .............................. 135
vii
5.6. Summary .................................................................................................................. 138
CHAPTER 6. SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ENGLISH
AND VIETNAMESE EXPRESSIONS OF METAPHOR OF LOVE .................. 140
6.1. Similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese conceptual
metaphors of love ............................................................................................................ 140
6.2. Similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese expressions of
metaphor of love ............................................................................................................. 142
6.2.1. Similarities ............................................................................................ 142
6.2.2. Differences ............................................................................................ 147
6.3. Summary .................................................................................................................. 152
CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS ....................................... 154
7.1. Conclusions............................................................................................................... 154
7.2. Implications .............................................................................................................. 156
7.3. Limitation and suggestions for further research ............................................... 158
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS .......................................................................................... 159
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 161
LIST OF THE POEMS ................................................................................................. 176
DECISION ON THE ADOPTION OF THE DOCTORAL RESEARCH TOPIC
........................................................................................................................................... 212
APPENDIX ...................................................................................................................... 213
viii
ABBREVIATIONS AND TYPOGRAPHICAL
CONVENTIONS
CD : Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary
CMT : conceptual metaphor theory
E : English
LD : Longman Dictionary of comtemporary English online
MD : Macmillan Dictionary
MIP : metaphorical identification procedure
MIPVU : MIP extended by the Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
MWD : Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary
V : Vietnamese
VD : Vietnamese Dictionary (Từ điển tiếng Việt)
- : unfound
+ : found
lower case : linguistic metaphor, e.g. the season of love
upper case : conceptual metaphor, e.g. LOVE IS A JOURNEY
ix
LIST OF THE TABLES
Table 3. 1. The missions of qualitative and quantitative methods in the study ........ 45
Table 4. 1. Top five source domains underlying English locative terms used for love . 68
Table 4. 2. Analysis of the images of moon, sun, stars, earth, sky and sea in the
metaphor LOVE IS LIFE ................................................................................. 70
Table 4. 3. Top seven source domains underlying English configurative terms used
for love .............................................................................................................. 72
Table 4. 4. Top three source domains underlying English moving terms used to
express love ...................................................................................................... 74
Table 4. 5. Top five source domains under English spatial language used to express
love ................................................................................................................... 76
Table 4. 6. LOVE-AS-TIME mapping ..................................................................... 80
Table 4. 7. Top three source domains underlying English kairotic terms used to
express love ...................................................................................................... 83
Table 4. 8. Analysis of the visual terms of beautiful, dark, rounded, light beam and
shine metaphorically used to describe love ...................................................... 85
Table 4. 9. Analysis of the terms of temperature metaphorically used for love ....... 89
Table 4. 10. Analysis of the terms of pain perception metaphorically used to express
love ................................................................................................................... 90
Table 4. 11. Analysis of musical terms metaphorically used to express love .......... 95
Table 5. 1. Analysis of the images of chùm, khĩm, lá, cành, nụ and hoa in the
metaphor LOVE IS A PLANT ....................................................................... 110
Table 5. 2. Analysis of the moving terms - lia and nhặt lên used for love ............. 113
Table 5. 3. Table 5.3. LOVE-AS-TIME OF A YEAR mapping ............................ 119
Table 5. 4 LOVE-AS-FLOWER mapping .............................................................. 122
x
Table 5. 5. Quantification of sensory language used for love in Vietnamese ........ 123
Table 5. 6. LOVE-AS-CLIMATE mapping ........................................................... 125
Table 5. 7. Analysis of the tactile terms - mềm and ấm in the metaphor LOVE IS LIFE
........................................................................................................................ 127
Table 5. 8. Analysis of Vietnamese temperature terms metaphorically used to express
love ................................................................................................................. 128
Table 6. 1. LOVE - AS - TIME OF A DAY mapping ............................................ 144
Table 6. 2. Source domains used for love in English and Vietnamese ................... 153
xi
LIST OF THE FIGURES
Figure 1.1. Map of the thesis ..................................................................................... 12
Figure 2. 1. The systematicity in the conceptualization of love in terms of a journey
........................................................................................................................ 15
Figure 2. 2. The coherence of a complex metaphor of love structured by two single
metaphors- LOVE IS A JOURNEY and LOVE IS A UNITY ...................... 16
Figure 2. 3. The coherence of the conceptualization of love in terms of time that is
understood metaphorically in terms of an entity ............................................ 17
Figure 2. 4. Conceptual mapping .............................................................................. 18
Figure 2. 5. Conceptual blending of “surgeon as butcher” ....................................... 23
Figure 2. 6. Neural theory applied to the LOVE IS A JOURNEY metaphor ........... 25
Figure 3. 1. Sample of detecting mistakes in the data inputs .................................... 57
Figure 3. 2. Sample of the data statistics under linguistic fields .............................. 57
Figure 3. 3. Sample of the data statistics under source domains .............................. 58
Figure 3. 4.Sample of drawing charts on Excel ........................................................ 59
Figure 3. 5. Sample of the comparisons of using metaphorical expressions of love
between English and Vietnamese .................................................................. 59
Figure 4. 1. Quantification of English expressions of metaphor of love under spatial,
temporal and sensory languages .................................................................... 63
Figure 4. 2. Source domains underlying English expressions of love metaphor ...... 64
Figure 4. 3. Quantification of English spatial terms used to express love under the
aspects of location, configuration and movement .......................................... 75
Figure 4. 4. Source domains underlying English spatial language used for love ..... 75
Figure 4. 5. Cycle of a day ........................................................................................ 77
xii
Figure 4. 6 The lifetime of living-beings .................................................................. 81
Figure 4. 7. The growth phases of living-beings ....................................................... 82
Figure 4. 8. Quantification of English terms of sensory perceptions used to express
love ................................................................................................................. 96
Figure 4. 9. Source domains underlying English terms of sensory perceptions used to
express love .................................................................................................... 96
Figure 5. 1. Quantification of Vietnamese expressions of metaphor of love under
spatial, temporal and sensory languages ...................................................... 103
Figure 5. 2. Source domains underlying Vietnamese expressions of love metaphor 104
Figure 5. 3 Quantification of Vietnamese spatial terms used to express love under the
aspects of location, configuration and movement ........................................ 115
Figure 5. 4 Source domains underlying Vietnamese spatial language used for love116
Figure 5. 5 Source domains underlying Vietnamese temporal terms used to express
love ............................................................................................................... 117
Figure 5. 6. Cycle of seasons ................................................................................. 118
Figure 5. 7. The lifetime of a flower ....................................................................... 121
Figure 5. 8. Source domains underlying Vietnamese terms of sensory perceptions
used for love ................................................................................................. 124
Figure 6. 1. Source domains used to express love in English and Vietnamese ...... 140
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Rationale
Love, which is hardly definable, is one of the significant things in human lives.
Without it, people feel as though their lives were incomplete, “I’m incomplete
without you” (Bryan, My red heart is blue), for example; or even they are unviable
as the words described by Gordon “I cannot live/ Without you” (I look at you and
think: I cannot live), similar to what is expressed in Vietnamese “Làm sao sống được
mà khơng yêu?” (Xuân Diệu, Bài thơ tuổi nhỏ). Nevertheless, to understand ‘what
love is’ is certainly not easy. This question has long been addressed but the answer
may be pretty abstract. It may be the reason for which Xuân Diệu – a Vietnamese
romantic poet – uttered “Làm sao cắt nghĩa được tình yêu!” (How to explain love!)
Several researchers (e.g. Gray, 1993; Shaver, Schwartz, Kirson, and O'Connor,
2001) support that love is one of the basic human emotions. It is a natural phenomenon
that can be found in all cultures around the world. However, much of semantics is
culturally and experientially based (Casad, 1995; Steenbergen, 2006). It is especially
right in description of abstract concepts like love, which has been demonstrated to be
one of the concepts richest in imagery by cognitive linguists (e.g. Lakoff & Johnson,
1980a,b; Kovecses, 1986, 1988, 2000; Tessari, 2001). The love expressions are thus
diversified, dependent on individual experiences and under cultural influences.
In the period of integration nowadays, the need of cross-cultural
communication and interpretation becomes necessary. Meanwhile, semantic field
plays an important role in understanding a speech. However in Langacker’s view,
semantics does not just reflect objective reality but rather represent subjective
perceptions of the world (see Casad, 2012). An expression does not only show its
inflexibly literal meaning of its components but is also understood in a specific
context based on our bodily experiences. The words expressing love are not the
exception. Let us look at the following description.
2
(1.1) You’ve slipped under my skin, invaded my blood and seized my heart
(Snyder, Poison study)
Obviously, the saying cannot be understood based on the literal meaning of
the words in it. How can a person “slip under one’s skin”, “invade one’s blood” and
“seize one’s heart”? How can these words express love? In this case, the speech can
just be interpreted thanks to our experiences and perceptions. These expressions are
metaphors whose meanings, according to the conceptual metaphor theory (CMT)
fathered by Lakoff and Johnson (1980a), lie not just in language, but in thought and
actions. It can also be seen from the example that love is described not only by the
word “love” but by many other words as well. Based on “slip under one’s skin”,
“invade one’s blood” and “seize one’s heart”, love is interpreted as a war in which
the lover has been defeated and controlled by his beloved. Accordingly, it is evident
that love becomes easier to approach and flexible to understand thanks to metaphor.
Let us consider another example,
(1.2) we'll fly away together,/ Fly far away into our own secret place,/ Where you
and I can share this fire./ This fire in our hearts that will burn forever... (Laset, Fire of
love)
There is no word meaning love in the extract, but one can perceive here a sweet
love in which the lovers desire to “fly away together to a secret place” where they
can share their love together forever. The expression metaphorically draws a love
journey with the couple’s travelling (to fly) and their common destination (secrete
place). Also in the poem, the image of fire is used to talk about the hope of a lasting
duration of love via the expression “burn forever”. In this case, it can be seen that an
expected durable love is presented smoothly in terms of a fire. In Vietnamese, love is
also depicted through metaphorical images.
(1.3) cả vũ trụ say bừng men lửa/ từ em/ ơm trùm anh/ rạo rực/ nỗi yêu rền
(the whole universe is intoxicated by the fire from you which covers me, makes me
excited about a successive love) (Bùi Minh Quốc, Em đến)
3
(1.4) Cuộc đời chồng thêm tuổi/ Tình yêu càng mặn nồng/ Cây xanh rồi cây
cỗi/ Tình yêu vẫn khơng già. (The older we are, the saltier (the more passionate) our
love is. Unlike trees that become older over time, love will not be old.) (Diệp Minh
Tuyền, Tình yêu... thì thầm)
Besides fire, love in (1.3) and (1.4) is also understood relating to an object that
can “ơm trùm” (cover) the lover, in terms of a nutrient with its saltiness (“mặn nồng”)
and in relation to time by the words “rền” (successive or repeated) and “già” (old).
It can briefly be seen from (1.1) to (1.4) that the kind of love mentioned is
romantic love; and the expressions used to describe it can be classified into spatial
language (including slip under, invade, seize, fly (away/ far/ into), share, this, cover),
temporal terms (successive or repeated) and terms of sensory perceptions (fire, burn).
The topic of love has so far been considerably explored in philosophy, psychology,
anthropology, etc. In linguistics, numerous studies of metaphors of love have been
carried out in the light of both traditional and cognitive views. Many of them are
conducted along with the studies on emotion in general. Some others examine
metaphors of love just in one language in many different periods of time. There are
also some cross-cultural investigations that aim to discover the conceptual metaphors
of love in a certain language and compare them to the English metaphors found by
Lakoff and Johnson (1980a) and Kovecses (2000). However, expressions of space,
time and sensory perceptions that are used to detect romantic love are still left open,
especially those in English and Vietnamese.
In those senses, a cognitive study of expressions of metaphor of...ovecses, 2006, p.127).
b. Novel metaphor
Novel metaphors are metaphors that go beyond our conventional conceptual
system and provide us with the new understanding of our experience (Lakoff & Johnson,
1980a). They are thus imaginative and creative. The metaphor LOVE IS A
COLLABORATIVE WORK OF ART is an instance that Lakoff and Johnson (1980a)
employed to account for the unconventionality of conceptual metaphor in English. In
this metaphor, the aspects of activity in collaboration to build a work of art (i.e. work,
creation, pursuing goals, building, and helping) are used for love, which is considered
abnormal and unavailable in our conventional conceptual system. As a result, the source
20
domain “a collaborative work of art” is a novel concept applied in love description.
In line with the term “conventional”, the term “novel” refers not just to
conceptual metaphors but metaphorical expressions. As mentioned above, the
conceptualization in metaphor is partial. A novel linguistic metaphor lies beyond the
normally used part but not outside the system of cross-domain mappings in a
conventional conceptual metaphor (Lakoff, 1993; Lakoff and Johnson, 1980a). The
statement is illustrated by Lakoff’s (1993) analysis of the song lyric- We’re driving
in the fast lane on the freeway of love, which is comprehensible thanks to the
conventional LOVE-AS-JOURNEY metaphor. Driving in the fast lane may be
exciting but dangerous. When being applied to the loving relationship, the excitement
is correspondent to sexual feelings and danger to the breakdown of the relationship.
These two factors are regarded as unconventional or novel extensions of the
conventional metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY.
In short, conventional metaphors count as familiar and easy to interpret while
novel metaphors are unfamiliar and unreadily interpretable (Lai, 2009). However, the
mechanisms for understanding conventional and novel metaphors are the same.
According to Kưvecses (2010a, p.35), conventional and novel (i.e., unconventional)
metaphors are at two ends of what is called the scale of conventionality; but
unconventional metaphorical expressions under conventional conceptual metaphors
are found more easily than unconventional conceptual metaphors.
2.1.1.6. Limitations of the CMT
It can be undeniable that the CMT has so far been the powerful and fruitful
theory of metaphor. Significantly, cognitive linguists recognize the “thorough
pervasiveness of metaphor in ordinary language and thought” (Grady, 2007, p.189).
Metaphor is thus inseparable from human conventional way of understanding and
experiencing the world. However, there are still some restrictions found in the theory.
First, various examples of verbal manifestations in Metaphors we live by
(Lakoff & Johnson, 1980) as linguistic evidences for several conceptual metaphors
21
are not dependable because they are provided without any sources. In other words,
these examples are all decontextualized while an expression of metaphor is just
verified accurately within a context. (Wilson & Carston, 2006; Remeo & Soria, 2005)
The second is lack of reliable criteria for metaphor identification in the CMT.
According to Pragglejaz Group (2007), the criteria help understand and identify
metaphors in discourse easily, objectively and accurately but they are not provided
specifically by cognitive metaphor scholars. Lack of the criteria for identifying
metaphors results in doubts about the precision and true values of empirical
investigations, making it difficult to give out any comparison between different
metaphorical analyses or any evaluation of theoretical statements about the frequency
of metaphor, its organization in discourse, and possible relations between language
and thought in metaphor.
The third is the question of determining the apt projection between the source
and the target domains in a metaphor (Gibbs, 2011). There is a bit of a mystery of
how the target of a given metaphor serves to constrain possible source domain, as
well as to determine which parts of those source domains become conceptually active
in the metaphor (Romeo & Soria, 2005).
Although there are some shortcomings, the CMT is still regarded as an
effective approach to structuring and comprehending metaphors at this time.
Furthermore, the studying of metaphor is being carried out continually. The theory is
consequently more and more bettered and improved. The limitations have been
basically remedied, particularly the guiding criteria for metaphor identification.
2.1.2. Recent development in conceptual metaphor
The CMT has so far been considered groundbreaking in metaphorical use and
understanding despite being criticised much. In accompany with the criticisms,
several studies have been carried out to reinforce and further develop the CMT. The
truth of the CMT has been demonstrated by metaphorical analyses in many kinds of
registers such as politics (Lakoff, 2004; Charteris-Black, 2004), culture (Kovecses,
22
2005, 2010b), literature (Lakoff & Turner, 1989; Gibbs, 1994; Kovecses, 2010a;
Steen, 2007; Weisberg, 2012), medicine (Semino et al., 2004) among others. Many
of these researches are discourse/corpus-based analyses, which partially helps to
stamp out the doubt about the reliability of the CMT. Besides, the theory has been
modified by some suggestions of identifying metaphors in language such as a 5-step
procedure of conceptual metaphor identification by Steen (1999), the approach to
metaphor identification by Charteris-Black (2004), the Pragglejaz’s (2007) method
for identifying metaphors in discourse (MIP) and its expansion called MIP-VU. All
of them help to better the CMT. However, issues of the metaphorical understanding
is still controversial; as a result, several theories have been built up with the aim of
supporting the interpretation of metaphors.
2.1.2.1. Categorization view of metaphor
Bowdle and Gentner (1999) treated metaphor as a species of categorization.
The categorization view of metaphor makes use of an attributive category that is
exemplified or typical of an entity to attribute to another entity. According to this
view, metaphor is a class-inclusion statement (Glucksberg & Keysar, 1993; cited in
Kovecses, 2011). When one says “surgeon is a butcher”, for example, the attributive
category of a butcher as being “bungling, atrocious” that is typical of “incompetence”
is assigned to the surgeon who is understood as being incompetent.
2.1.2.2. Blending theory of metaphor
In line with the CMT fathered by Lakoff and Johnson (1980a), blending
theory, or conceptual integration theory raised by Fauconnier and Turner (2002), talks
of metaphor as a conceptual phenomenon activated by a systematic projection
between mental spaces. The conceptual blending uses the 4-space model (instead of
the 2-domain model of the CMT) to account for metaphorical concepts. They includes
two inputs (equivalent to source and target domains in the CMT), a generic space
(where common properties of both inputs are shared), and a blend space (where
information from the inputs combines and interacts) (Grady, Oakley, & Coulon,
23
1999, p. 421). The blending includes three basic processes – composition, completion
and elaboration. Composition is the projection of properties from each of the inputs
into the blend; completion refers to the process of matching projected content with
the long-term memorized information in the blend; and elaboration shows cognitive
activities of the event that are reproduced in the blend. The utterance “surgeon is a
butcher” is, for example, illustrated in Figure 2.5 and analysed as follows.
Figure 2. 5. Conceptual blending of “surgeon as butcher” (Grady et al.,1999)
The two input spaces (butchery and surgery) are connected by a set of their
correspondent properties that are linked to shared properties in the generic space. The
blend space inherits the properties from both input spaces; therefore, in the blended
space, there is a surgeon in the role of a butcher who cannot do a good job in trying
24
to heal a patient, which leads to such an understanding way of his incompetence.
Approving of the integration view, Gibbs (2011) adopts the dynamic system
theory to account for metaphorical phenomena. According to this theory, metaphor
is employed and understood in a whole system of the interaction of brain, body and
world based on the principle of self-organization through simulations. To understand
a metaphorical utterance, there may be more than one conceptual metaphor being
activated and used. The dynamic system approach focuses on analysing linguistic
expressions in a discourse in order to find out the trace of the metaphor that connects
to the thinking and language system. This approach is consequently turned into a
method of “metaphor-led discourse analysis” including the procedure of
transcription, metaphor identification, coding metaphors and using software, finding
patterns of metaphor use from coded data (Cameron, et al., 2009).
It is noteworthy that the projections in the blending theory may occur in more
than one direction, which challenges the CMT. However, Grady et al. (1999) argued
that the metaphorical blend inherit the directionality of conventional mappings when
employing them.
2.1.2.3. Neural theory of metaphor
Neural theory developed by Lakoff (2008) makes sense of metaphorical
phenomena via the so-called primary metaphors that evoke in the process of dealing
with a metaphor. According to this theory, the metaphorical use and understanding is
grounded on embodiment and the extension of conceptual blending called neural
binding. In the metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY, for example, there are the mappings
from the source (journey) to the target (love) domains that are described as follows.
- Travellers correspond to lovers;
- Vehicle corresponds to the relationship;
- Destinations is correspondent to life goals;
- Impediments to motion are correspondent to difficulties.
25
Figure 2. 6. Neural theory applied to the LOVE IS A JOURNEY metaphor
(Lakoff, 2008)
In the process of mappings, there is a chain of “evokes” constituting linking
circuits between the component metaphors and the metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY
(called “Self.”). The component metaphors activate based on the neural bindings. All
the process of understanding the metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY can be illustrated
in the following figure, where the arrows (→) are correspondent to linking circuits
and the equal signs (=) specify the neural bindings.
2.1.2.4. The view based on the main meaning focus
Kovecses (2011) proposed a view of treating metaphors by using main meaning
foci that are set up by the central knowledge of the source domain; then, they are mapped
onto the target domain. The central meaning foci can be identified as the contrast of two
concepts in a metaphor, or they can also be found in dictionaries. In the metaphorical
statement “The surgeon is a butcher”, for example, the surgery is understood as a
precise work that is not required for butchery. This aspect is an emergent contrast in
26
the comparison of these two concepts, whereby the central meaning focus is defined
in the source domain as bungling, sloppy or careless. Then, this central meaning focus
is mapped onto the target domain of surgery and the metaphor is comprehended.
In sum, the CMT after its birth has received both approvals and criticisms.
Many theoretical and practical studies have been carried out in order to demonstrate
the truth of the CMT and better it. Besides, there are other theories raised as
alternative suggestions of the CMT. Some of them challenge the CMT to the
unidirectionality of conceptual metaphors; still, the issue of multi-directionality in
conceptual metaphor mappings has been a matter of controversy. Furthermore, the
CMT is still the core on which most of the recent theories of metaphors are based to
develop. In addition, these theories can complement the CMT and each other in the
interpretation of metaphor (Kovecses, 2011). As a result, the CMT is still the main
choice for our study, which focuses on expressions of metaphor of romantic love.
2.1.3. Expression of metaphor
According to the CMT, metaphor is understood as one mental domain being
conceptualized in terms of another. Therefore, metaphor is conceptual in nature; it is
manifested in language through linguistic expressions which are called expressions
of metaphor (or metaphorical expressions, or linguistic metaphors) in our study. In
other words, expressions of metaphor are the linguistic evidence of a conceptual
metaphor (or metaphorical concept). For instance, the conceptual metaphor LOVE IS
A JOURNEY is reflected by a variety of expressions: Look how far we’ve come. It’s
been a long, bumpy road. We can’t turn back now... (Lakoff, 1993, p.206)
2.1.4. Metaphor and culture
Culture is a term with hundreds of different definitions in the world. Making
a generalization of these definitions, Spencer- Oatey (2012) defined culture as basic
assumptions and values that influence (but not determine) one’s behaviour and help
to understand the behaviour of other members in their community. The
manifestations of culture are found in lifestyle, beliefs, the system of procedures,
27
policies and conventions, artefacts and creations (Spencer- Oatey, 2012). Culture is
generally divided into Western and Eastern cultures. Western culture (also identified
as the Western world) is not just assigned to the continent of Europe but applied to
the countries of European immigration such as the Americas and Australasia (Storck,
1994). The free dictionary online also defines Western culture as the cultures of
Western Europe and Northern America while Eastern culture (Eastern world)
comprises the cultures of the Indian subcontinent, West, North, Central Asia and the
Far East (Vietnam included). The division results from the distinctions of religions
and lifestyles between these two worlds.
In their investigation of the relationship between language and culture, Mahadi
and Jafari (2012) found that culture directly affects language. As language and
thought are interdependent, culture impacts on thought. Because metaphors are in
thought according to the CMT, culture influences metaphor. As a result, metaphor
carries cultural meaning, which is similar to the cultural specificity of metaphorical
mappings argued by Lakoff (1993).
In brief, metaphor can be seen as a product of culture and under cultural
influence. It works “based on cultural considerations and cognitive processes”
(Kovecses, 2005, p.4). In the other hand, the linguistic metaphors existing in a culture
influence the way of structuring concepts (Murphy, 1996). Consequently, metaphor
and culture are not separable. Culture creates the diversity as well as the consistence of
metaphors in each language and different languages.
2.1.5. Metaphor in literature and in poetry
Traditional views treating metaphor at linguistic levels show that metaphors in
literature are more creative, unique, impressive, interesting, plentiful, and complex than
those in non-literary texts (Semino & Steen, 2008). It is believed that the “real” source
of metaphor is in literature (Kovecses, 2010a). As a genre of literature, poetry has all
the qualities of literature (Abrams & Harpham, 2012). It is even more metaphorical
than prose fiction thanks to the poets’ creative genius (Kovecses, 2002; Lodge, 1977-
28
cited from Semino & Steen, 2008). In such beliefs, the poet Dickey suggests a four-
step process of metaphor-making, namely, (i) making picture comparisons in the mind,
(ii) discovering the threads of continuity that run through these pictures and which
create a “narrative of dramatic action”, (iii) recombining these elements so that they
undergo a “fruitful interchange of qualities, a transference of energies, an informing of
each other”, and (iv) translating this process into the medium of language (cited from
Myers & Wukasch, 2003). Analogously, Ricoeur (1977) also defined the process of
making metaphor including three steps, selection, substitution and language formation.
On the contrary, the CMT stated that metaphor is pervasive in everyday life;
and the knowledge of everyday conceptual system can shed light on most of the cases
of poetic metaphors because they are mostly extended from our everyday
conventional system of metaphorical thought (Lakoff, 1993; Yu, 1998). It is further
shown that poetic metaphorical expressions can be unconventional and novel, but the
metaphorical concepts underlying them remain conventional and commonplace to
most people in the community (Carriello, 2010; Kovecses, 2010a). The poetic
language should consequently be regarded as part of the everyday language; and the
analysis of the special acts of language and literature must start and end with that of
everyday language (Turner, 1991).
It is noteworthy that most of poetic metaphors derive from conventional
metaphors, they are thus neither creative nor original nor imaginative. However,
poetic linguistic metaphors can be manifested in unconventional ways. Furthermore,
most but not all of the poetic metaphors are reflected based on everyday language.
As mentioned above, there are still metaphors that are structured outside our everyday
conceptual system. They provide new understanding of human experience. Such
metaphors are “typically less clear but richer in meaning than either everyday
metaphor” (Kovecses, 2010a, p.49). The metaphor LOVE IS A COLLABORATIVE
WORK OF ART is the one Lakoff and Johnson (2003) used to illustrate the existence
of such imaginative and creative metaphors.
29
Also in terms of metaphor in poetry, Gibbs (1994) claimed that despite using
the same underlying conceptual metaphors, the language of great poets is more
creative than that employed by most ordinary speakers. These poetic metaphors are
made special by reworking ordinary everyday metaphors via four techniques-
extending, elaboration, questioning and combining (Gibbs, 1994; Kovecses, 2010a;
Lakoff and Turner, 1989); particularly as follows:
Extending is defined as adding a new conceptual element or an
unconventional aspect to the source domain through new linguistic means to make
the conventional metaphor novel. Kovecses (2010a, p.54) illustrated this technique
via the lines “In the middle of life’s road/ I found myself in a dark wood” by Dante.
There is seemingly no newness as the conventional metaphor LIFE IS A JOURNEY
is employed; but the creativity here lies in linguistic means by which the “life’s road”
is described as passing through “a dark wood”. Dante extends the LIFE-AS-
JOURNEY metaphor by adding this unconventional element to it.
Unlike extending a metaphor by introducing new elements in the source
domain, elaboration employs already existing elements in a new, unconventional
way. This technique is believed to be a principal mode of poetic thought that goes
beyond the ordinary (Lakoff & Turner, 1989). For example, in the lines When I dream
of meeting/ the enemy, [] white acetylene/ ripples from my body... (Adrienne Rich,
The Phenomenology of Anger, cited in Kovecses, 2010a, p.54-55), the conventional
source domain a hot fluid used to describe anger is elaborated as a dangerous
substance, acetylene. This modification is an unusual way of treating language to
make poetic expressions creative and figurative.
The next technique- questioning is understood as calling into question of the
very appropriateness, or pointing out the inadequacy of our everyday conventional
metaphors. Let us consider an example cited from Kovecses (2010a, p.55), Suns can
set and return again,/ but when our brief light goes out,/ there’s one perpetual night
to be slept through (Catullus 5). The poem points out that there are some questions
30
of the appropriateness of the common conceptual metaphors for life and death, A
LIFETIME IS A DAY and DEATH IS NIGHT. It is because once one dies, they
cannot live again; or death is a “perpetual night to be slept through” and the dead
never come back to life again, which challenges the validity of these metaphors.
Therefore, the cognitive mechanism of questioning the validity of accepted
metaphors may be based on the partial nature of metaphorical structuring.
Finally, combining is using the materials of several conventional metaphors
in a single expression or at the same time. It is the most effective technique in making
our everyday conceptual system rich and novel (Kovecses, 2010a). Let us look at the
clause black night doth take away [the twilight] of the verse from Sonnet 73 by
Shakespeare: In me thou seest the twilight of such day/ As after sunset fadeth in the
west;/ Which by and by black night doth take away,/ Death’s second self that seals
up all in rest. It is expressed skilfully with a combination of the following metaphors:
- black: LIFETIME IS A DAY, LIFE IS LIGHT, DEATH IS NIGHT
- night: DEATH IS NIGHT, LIFE IS LIGHT
- take away: LIFE IS PRECIOUS POSSESSION, EVENTS ARE ACTIONS
Blending together, these conventional metaphors reveal the idea that death
(correspondent to night) takes away the precious possession of life (corresponding to
light) (Lakoff & Turner, 1989, p.71).
In summary, on the basis of the conventional metaphors used by lay people,
poets readjust their linguistic expressions to fit poetic circumstances and make their
language novel, creative and imaginative via the tools of extending, elaboration,
questioning and combining. Bartel (1983, p.54-55) thus pointed out four qualities of
poetic metaphors: (i) inseparability form their contexts, (ii) their freshness and
uniqueness, (iii) their newness produces not only surprise but also tension, and (iv)
several different metaphors emerged in a subtle and interesting interaction. The
consequence is that whereas the interpretation of conventional metaphors concerns
sense retrieval, the comprehension of novel metaphors involves sense creation; and
31
poetic language of metaphor when it is understandable can convey new poetic
insights about human experiences (Bowdle & Gentner, 1999; Gibbs, 1994).
Since our study is carried out based on the materials of poetry, the poetic
reworking mechanisms of ordinary metaphors become essential to help us analyse
the data, find out the novelty in English and Vietnamese poetic language.
2.1.6. Concepts of space, time and sensory perceptions
In the cognitive view’s equation of meaning with conceptualization, semantic
structures are characterized based on the experience of space and time (Bussmann,
2006). The structure of space, time and person is hence fundamental to cognitive process
and the understanding of the world (Peer, Salomonc, Goldbergb, Blanke, & Arzy, 2015).
2.1.6.1. Space
Space is a boundless three-dimensional extent in which objects and events
occur and have relative position and direction (Merriam-Webster dictionary). Space
contains objects and events, but there also exist empty space and unoccupied places.
Spatial relationships involve topology, orientation and distance relations between
places (Bussmann, 2006; Mani & Pustejovsky, 2012). More specifically, spatial
language is concerned with expressions describing location, movement,
configuration and the relationships between objects in space (Coventry, 2009; Slack
& Van de Zee, 2003). According to Lý Tồn Thắng (2005), spatial properties and
relationships of objects can be reflected directly by senses through images or
indirectly by logic through concepts. The spatial properties of an object through
senses that can be defined by shape, size, space occupied, position, distance, etc. are
manifested differently in languages. Thus, spatial language can be formalized in terms
of topology and orientation (Mani & Pustejovsky, 2012,). It is used to reflect the
existence of objects, their configuration, locations and motions in space. In human
communication, utilizing spatial language is often extended to many abstract domains
including love (Casasanto & Bottini, 2014; Landau & Jackendoff, 1993).
32
2.1.6.2. Time
Temporal information plays a very important role in communication and in
many specialized domains of human activity. Fraisse illuminated the importance of
time in human life by explaining that our existential conditions vary constantly and
modify us in different ways because our existence is structured and shaped by the
rhythms of nights and days (cited from Hamdi, 2010). An obvious property of time that
we all experience is its passing. Newton stated, “time, of itself, and from its own nature,
flows equably without relation to any external” (cited from Evan, 2004). It is composed
of points and intervals, and represented by its common units such as year, month, day,
hour, minutes, second, etc. (Hajnicz, 1996). There are two opposite concepts of time:
temporary and permanent time (McTaggart, 1927; Sinha & Gărdenfors, 2014).
Temporary time represents time experienced from the inside on the basis of grammar
tense, adverbs, and nominal temporal landmarks. Permanent time is time viewed from
the outside and specified by before and after, earlier and later, first and last, etc.
Although it is popular and well-known, time is one of the problematic aspects
of human experience. Evans (2004) supposed that temporal experience is manifested
in two levels: lexical and cognitive based on some notions such as temporal, duration,
interval, moment, sequence and event. In lexical level, time is conventionally
represented by time, past, present, future, etc. However, people ordinarily think and
talk about time not in time’s own terms, but rather in terms of motion through, and
location in, three-dimensional space (Evans, 2004). Similarly, Lakoff and Johnson
(1980a) stated that time is frequently constructed in terms of space. Therefore, the
data for our analysis under temporal terms should be chosen carefully so that they
don’t overlap with the ones of space.
2.1.6.3. Sensory perception
Sensory imagery is any description involving one or more of the five senses –
sight, smell, sound, taste and touch. Each sense has a corresponding sensory organ –
eyes, noses, ears, tongue and skin respectively. Sensory perception is an awareness
33
of things, a process of identifying and interpreting sensory information under
environment stimuli through the senses (Medical dictionary). According to Nguyen
Lai (2009), the field of perception has to be linked to that of thinking in relation to
metaphor. Therefore, sensory perception is one link in a chain of cognizing the world,
especially emotional world. Furthermore, since the sensory perception is a relatively
straightforward process and an accurate reflection of reality (Barth, 2012; Van de
Lagemaat, 2015), sensory language is often deliberately used so as to increase
descriptive and perceptive effects, particularly those on abstract concepts as love.
In brief, space, time, and sensory perception are fundamental cognitive
domains, in relation to which the mappings of conceptual metaphors are motivated
(Lakoff, 1993; Langacker, 1987, 1999; Tissari, 2001). In this study, the language of
space, time and sensory perceptions that are employed to express love are
investigated. On the basis of the love metaphors introduced by Lakoff and Johnson
(1980a,b), Kưvecses (1986, 1988, 2000), and some other researches, the metaphorical
expressions of love are analysed and classified into these three basic domains. The
procedure is presented in more detail in the next chapters.
2.1.7. Love as an emotion
In line with Merriam-Webster and Oxford dictionaries where love is defined
as any of a number of emotions related to a sense of strong affection and personal
attachment, McTaggart (1927) treated love as an emotion felt towards persons; it is
intense, passionate, and leads to the desire of closeness and union. Love may cause
happiness or sadness, pleasure or pain; therefore, love is a complex emotion. According
to Tallis (2004), love may exist in many forms; however, there is one manifestation of
love that appears to have fascinated humanity since the dawn of civilization. It is the
love that a couple share when they fall in love – passionate or romantic love.
Romantic love is regarded as a complex sentiment of erotic, cognitive,
emotional and behavioural components that are impossible to disentangle, a mix of
emotional and physical desires along with unrealistic and idealistic attitude towards
34
a partner (Karandashev, 2015; Sternberg, 1988). In a more general definition,
Gottschall and Nordlund (2006) stated that romantic love is a complex emotion
manifested in a romantic context between two persons with partly sexual attraction.
It is a representative feeling kept for only one person and expected to last forever.
When someone is in romantic love, they are intensely attracted to the beloved’s whole
person (but not just to the body) and desire strongly to join with this person. This
feeling can change one’s own life priority. In a romantic relationship, one tends to
idealize his or her partner, care for this person’s well-being; and when one is absent,
the other will feel pain or empty. It is also the emotion of which the metaphorical
expressions are chosen for our study
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212
DECISION ON THE ADOPTION OF THE DOCTORAL
RESEARCH TOPIC
213
APPENDIX
SPATIAL, SENSORY, AND TEMPORAL TERMS IN ENGLISH
AND VIETNAMESE METAPHORICAL EXPRESSIONS OF LOVE
A.1. English locative terms in metaphorical expressions of love
Locative terms F* Locative terms F Locative terms F
across 1 after 2 at 5
along 1 contain 2 dwell/ lie in 5
among 1 deep seated 2 close/ near 6
back 1 first 2 here/ there 6
beyond 1 out of 2 from 7
corner 1 side/ side by side 2 at/in Eden’s door/
the Garden of Eden/
heaven/ paradise/
Happy Isles/ celestial
8
course 1 together 2
destination 1 towards 3
drown 1 miles 3
fit 1 ’twixt/ amid/ between 3 on 9
fold 1 around 3 (any/every/no)where 11
home 1 exist 3 distant/ far 11
marriageward 1 beneath/under 4 within 11
place 1 to/ into/ up to 4 inside/outside 14
share one space 1 this 4 with 14
via the heart 1 above/ upon 5 in 71
* F (frequency) Total 240
A2. English configurative terms in metaphorical expressions of love
Configurative
terms
F*
Configurative
terms
F
Configurative
terms
F
Configurative
terms
F
awash 1 image 1 unwound 1 galaxy/ sky 4
batch 1 key 1 vein of gold 1 bond/ thread/ tie 4
balloon 1 leaf 1 vessel 1 bowl 4
block 1 limitless 1 vine 1 moon 4
blood 1 line 1 washout 1 all/ whole 5
boundary 1 lock-key 1 wick-oil 1 only you and me/
pair/ two
5
building 1 loneliness 1 wine 1
castaway 1 mantle 1 wreckage 1 brimful/ full 5
chain 1 miles 1 steep 1 long 5
chalice-wine 1 narrow pound 1 kaleidoscope 1 a bit/ little/small 6
city 1 nest 1 coin 2 apart 6
cloud-wind 1 three 1 cup/ grail 2 empty/ emptiness 6
coach 1 prism 1 dinosaur 2 wall 6
companion 1 reward 1 earth - sky 2 world 6
214
complementary 1 rivers 1 fill 1 alone/ lonely 7
concentric 1 roadblock 1 flood 2 breadth/ big/ grand/
great/ monster/ vast
7
crooked 1 rock 1 Earth/ land 2
desert 1 rod 1 half 2 Eden/ Garden of
Eden/ heaven/
paradise
7 division 1 root 1 heart 2
dory-harbor 1 rough 1 obstacle 2
double-knot 1 rounded 1 prison 2 sea/ ocean 7
exist 1 sand 1 remnant/ trace 2 (in)complete/
completely
7
exit 1 seaming 1 plant/ tree 2
face 1 seed 1 reflection 2 part 8
fit 1 separate 1 skein 2 star 10
fleas 1 shoal 1 thin/thick 2 one/ oneness 11
flower-breeze 1 thing 1 wing 2 deep/depth/deeply 13
fool 1 thoroughfare 1 zigzag 2 gift 13
frail 1 tomb 1 house/ shelter 3 highway/ path/
road/ way
18
fruit 1 tower 1 door/ gate 3
garden 1 twelve 1 high/ height 3 much/more 19
hair 1 snare 1 marriage 3 bud/ blossom/
flower/ rose/ stalk
21
handcuffs 1 star-sky 1 sun 3
hill 1 unity 1 together 3 Total 348
honey-drop 1 universe 1 * F (frequency)
A3. English terms of movement in metaphorical expressions of love
Configurative
terms
F*
Configurative
terms
F
Configurative
terms
F Configurative terms F
add 1 skip a beat 1 escape/ redeem 4 transform/ turn 6
away 1 slip 1 draw into/ enter/
exist
4
build/ built 7
back 1 snatch 1 break/ breaking/
broken
7
bow down 1 spurt 1 go (riding/ sailing) 4
cast 1 stand 1 keep/ remain 4
flow/ overflow/ spill 7
blow 1 start 1 inhale/ drink 4
chase 1 sting 1 lift 4 lay/ put 7
come alive 1 stir 1 open 4
leave/ pledge/
relinquish/ remove
7 couple 1 subdued 1 inert/ trudge/
linger
4
defend 1 turbulence 1
drift 1 unbloom 1
jump/ leap/ pound 4
grow/ outgrow/
overgrown
8
embrace 1 unreachable 1
entangle 1 waft 1 part 4
accept/ get/ receive/
take/ taken
16 face 1 whittle 1 push away/ sweep/
wash away
4
follow the trail 1 alive 2
give and take 1 beat 2 sail/ swim 4 gather/ pick/
pluck/ treasure
10
glide 1 climb/ scale 2 wait 4
gravity 1 coin/ convert 2 wrap 4 into/ out of 10
hook on 1 compound 2 breeze /rain storm/
tempest
5
walk/ wander 10
imprisoned 1 crush 2 11
215
inch 1 drip/ instil 2 destroy/ dissolve/
mar
5
clutch/ hold/ held/
keep
increase 1 for 2 fall/ down 13
intertwined 1 free 2 drive/ ride 5 flutter/ fly/ soar/
alight/ take flight
to
13 looped 1 pay for/ swap 2 dip/ drown/ flood/
plunge
5
loose 1 run/ scurry 2
nestle 1 stay 2 halt/ stop 5 bind/ bound/ join/
pin/ tie/ unjoined/
unleash
14 on our way to 1 tear/ torn 2
journey/ travel/ trip 5
onward 1 through 2
paint 1 towards 2 melt/ melting/ merge/
mingling
5
lose/ lost 15
pass 1 alter/ change 3 bear/ borne/ bring/
carry/ create/ wear/
yield/
23 pick up clues 1 breathe 3 send/ sent 5
plant 1 retreat/ return 3 share 5
plumb 1 roam/ sally/ prowl 3 fill/ filled 6 bestow/ give/
dedicate/giving/
offer/provide
39 resign 1 separate/ separated 3 lurch/ sway/ shake/
totter/ tremble
6
retrieve 1 spin/ twirl/ whirl 3
ripped 1 give (room/way) 3
capture /catch/ caught 6
arrive/ come/ go/
gone/ move
54
sit upon 1 cross/ pass 4
* F (frequency) Total 501
A4. English visual terms in metaphorical expressions of love
Visual terms F* Visual terms F Visual terms F
bloom 1 glimmer/ shimmer 2
dark/ dim/gray/ darkness 9
cry 1 hide/ hidden 2
delicate 1 lovely/ loveliness 2
illuminate/ shine/ shining 10
disappear 1
moonlight/ moonly 2
dreamy look 1
aura/ bright/ brightness 11
green and lush 1 rich 2
smile 1 discover/ explore 3 burn/ douse/ ignite/
reignite
11
ignore 1 enchanting/ grace 3
in view 1 light beam/ ray 3 look/ look for/ search/
seek/ unsought
14
lilies-moonbeam 1 light up/ lit 3
lost 1 vivid/ alive 3 beautiful/ beauty 18
newfound 1 fade/ pale/ paled 4 color/ aqua/ amethyst/
black/ blue/ crimson/ flush/
red/ rose/ rose-red/ scarlet/
green/ orange/ pink/ violet/
yellow/hue
22
incandescent/
radiance/ radiant
2
rainbow 4
mark/ stain 5
fireworks 1 show/ reveal 5
red light 1 aglow/ decked/
glory/ glow/
luminous/splendor
6 reflected 1 candle/ fire/ flame/spark 24
scarlet brand 1 light 23
shadow 1 wilted/ wither 6
find/ grope/ rummage/ see 37
turn the light to gold 1 7
216
sunly/ sunny/
sunshine/ sunlight
Total 273
fresh/ pure 2 blind/ glance/ eye 8 * F (frequency)
A5. English tactile terms in metaphorical expressions of love
Tactile terms Frequency Tactile terms Frequency
burning 1 acold/ bitter/ cold/
coldness/ coolness/ numb
14
heal/ soothe 3
heat/ hot/ hotness 4 dash/ feel/ touch 16
harsh/ sharp/ soft/
smooth/
5
ache/ agony/ anguish/
hurt/ pain/ sting/
suffering/ wound
30
burden/ light 9
cozy/ warm/ warmth 13 Total 95
A6. English gustatory terms in metaphorical expressions of love
Terms of gustation Frequency Terms of gustation Frequency
taste/ tasted 5 sweet/ sweets/ sweetly 29
bitter 2 bittersweet 1
salt 1 Total 38
A7. English auditory terms in metaphorical expressions of love
Terms of
audition
Frequency Terms of audition Frequency
dumb 1 groaning/ moan 2
ears 1 choir/ minstrel 2
knock 1 melody/ symphony/ tune 4
thunder 1 music/ musical 4
purr 1 call/ laugh/ speak/
summon/ voice
6
rattle 1
silence-haunted 1 lilt/ lyric/ sing/ song 17
sizzle 1 Total 43
A8. English chronological terms in metaphorical expressions of love
Chronological terms Frequency Chronological terms Frequency
summer 1 April/ March-day/ May 4
season 2 day/night 6
sunrise/ sunset 3 spring/ springtime 12
Total 28
217
A9. English kairotic terms in metaphorical expressions of love
Kairotic terms Frequency Kairotic terms Frequency
anew 1 days ahead/ future/ tomorrow 3
brief 1 bloom/ blossom/ flowering 4
dawn 1 new/ young 4
days 1 last 5
early 1 deathless/ endless/ eternal/
undying/ unending
7
happen 1
minute 1 begin/ start/ start out 8
turn 1 old/ old days/ old-
fashioned/ out of fashion
12
past/ yesterday 3
beget/ born 4 dead/ die/ end/ fade 20
Total 78
A10. Vietnamese locative terms in metaphorical expressions of love
Locative terms F* Locative terms F Locative terms F
cuối đất cùng trời 1 ngả/ đơi ngả 2 này/ đây 6
dành 1 nguồn (gốc) 2 con đường/ đàng/ lối 7
quán trọ 1 trú tạm 2 bến/ bờ/ đích đến/
điểm dừng/ nơi
8
sa lầy 1 Đào Nguyên/ mảnh trời
thần tiên/ thiên đường
3
nhân 1 chìm/ đắm
(chìm/đuối)/ ngập đắm
12
dưới 1 gần/ rút gần 3
miền đất lạ 1 vào (bên đường/ lịng/
nơi)
3
bên/ bên cạnh/ bên
nhau/ cạnh nhau/ sát
16
sau 1
sâu 1 giữa/ xuyên giữa 4 đầu (tiên)/ thứ nhất 22
tay trong tay 1 phương/ từ 4 biệt/ cách/ xa (cách/
nhau/ tắp/ xơi)
25
xung quanh 1 trên (biến/cành/hết) 4
chơn vào 2 chỗ/ cõi (thiên đường) 5 trong (dạ/ lịng/
thiên đường)
28
đáy (ba lơ/ lịng) 2 ở (bên/ trong) 5
* F (frequency) đường (ấy/ này/ khác) 5 Total 182
A11. Vietnamese configurative terms in metaphorical expressions of love
Configurative terms F* Configurative terms F Configurative terms F
ao sen 1 bĩng-gương/ bĩng-hình 2 bao la/ cao/ lớn/ rộng/
mênh mơng
6
biển - bờ cát 1 vịnh 2
quả trứng - lịng đỏ 1 hạn/ giới hạn 2 mảnh/ tấm 7
bướm - hoa 1 bền chặt/ khăng khít 2 nát (tan)/ rạn/ vụn (vỡ) 7
cái dằm 1 trời - trăng 2 đèo/ đồi/ núi/rừng/ sa
mạc/ thác ghềnh
8
chiếc xe 1 vàng đá/ vàng ngọc 2
218
chín 1 vạt 2 đồng/ mảnh vườn/ cánh
đồng hoa/ mặt đất/ vùng
8
chứa chan 1 liền 2
vỏ - ruột 1 mười/ muơn triệu 2 bơ vơ/ chơi vơi/ lạc lồi/
mong manh
9
con chỉ -khung cửi 1 sĩng - bờ (cát) 2
đàn-dây 1 trận trận bát quái 2 bến-đị (thuyền)/ thuyền
(cánh buồm)-biển
10
dấu chân 1 cao/ cheo leo/ dài 3
điểm tựa 1 hai (mảnh/ mình/ nửa) 3 (một) nửa 12
gai nhọn 1 vầng trăng/ trăng rằm 3 bến (nước)/ bờ (cỏ)/
con đị/ buồm/ thuyền
15
Hồng Hậu - Vua 1 mái/ ngơi nhà/ nấm mồ 3
kho vàng 1 dang dở/ dở dang 4 dào dạt/ đầy/ tràn đầy/
chống đầy/ vơi/ khơng
15
Uyên-Ương 1 rối (bời/ rắm) 4
mây- trăng 1 vơ (biên/ bờ/ bớ bến)/
khơn cùng
4
một/ số một/ duy nhất 16
ngơi sao 1 chút/ đa/ nhiều/ những 19
rượu 1 lơ cốt 4 biển/ nguồn (suối)/
sĩng/ (dịng) sơng/ suối
21
rượu-chén 1 tan (nát/ tành) 4
sơng-lục bình 1 (bầu/ mặt) trời 5 (chặng/con/ đoạn/ nẻo/
quãng) đường/ ngã rẽ/
ngõ/ lối (ra/ về)/ dặm
22
ruột thắt 1 giọt (mưa/ thủy ngân) 5
bản đồ 2 trọn/ vẹn (nguyên/ trịn) 5 cành/ chùm/ khĩm/ lá/
mầm/ nụ/ (đĩa) hoa/
nhụy/ hạt/ quả/ trái
26 bão dơng/ cơn mưa lũ 2 cửa (đĩng/ khép)/ kín/
mở/ trống trải
5
cành - (hai đĩa) hoa 2
cạn (khơ) 2 thiếu/ thừa 5 mối/ sợi (dây/ tơ duyên/
hồng/tơ mành/ xe)
37
cầu 2 bĩng lẻ/ lẻ loi 6
vịng 2 cái 6 Total 374
cơi trầu/ giầu- cau 2 đơi / song 7 * F (frequency)
A12. Vietnamese terms of movement in metaphorical expressions of love
Moving terms F Moving terms F Moving terms F Moving terms F
cắn 1 đơm/ đong 2 lay/ rúng/ xao
(động)
4
chắp (cánh/ lại/
nối)/ hàn
9
cản trở 1 xây (đắp) 2
cất 1 vun trồng 2 bay/ phảng phất/
phơi phới
4
buơng/ thả/ gieo 11
cắt 1 đánh lưới 2 liệm/ chơn/ vùi 11
câu 1 đập / vỗ 2 đổ vào/ rĩt/ trút 5 dừng (chân/ lại)/
đỗ/ đứng/ neo/ ở
lại/ nằm (yên)/ chờ
12 chất 1 thổi (bùng/ giĩ) 2 ăn/ uống 5
chạy trốn 1 lựa chọn 2 (đánh) đổi 5
dẫn đường 1 ngã vào 2 bật/nảy/ trổ
(mầm)/ mọc
5 bão (táp/tố)/
cuồng phong/
phong ba/ cơn
(lốc/ mưa/ giĩ)
13
đảo lộn 1 ra đi/ thốt ra 2
đào sâu 1 ra khơi/ phiêu 2 chứa chan/ dạt
dào/ lai láng/ khơn
hàn
5 đắp lũy 1 sang (đị/ sơng) 2
lăn lĩc 1 cưỡng/ cướp 2 14
219
tiễn 1 lấy (cắp/ lại) 2 run run 5
đem/ mang/ dâng/
tặng
kiềm chế 1 cuộc hành trình/
cuộc trường
chinh
2
đuổi/ theo (đuổi) 6 (tạt/ trở) về 15
trả 1 lui/ quay (cuơng/
ngược/ trở lại/ về)
6
cầm/ (nắm/ gìn)
giữ
15
đứng tổ kiến 1 trận giĩ 2
ngăn bờ 1 lội/ trèo 3 chia/ rẽ (đơi/ sẻ) 6 lưu lạc/ đánh/vuột
(mất/ khỏi)/ bỏ
(rơi)
17 ngược dịng 1 cuộn (trào) 3 lồng/ rời (nhau) 6
chìa tay 1 cuốn (hút) 3 chao/ chắc trơ trơ/
thay đổi/ thành
7
chiếm 1 dứt (đoạn) 3 (ràng) buộc/ dệt/
đan/ kết/ trĩi/ thắt/
xe/ khĩa chặt
21 rĩn rén 1 gõ (cửa) 3
chen/ hất/ xơ (ngã/
vỡ)/ len/ xơng vào
7 rộn rịp 1 trơi 3
nhún nhẩy 1 gỡ/ tách (ra/ rời) 3 đến (đây) 25
chở 1 vây (bủa/ quanh) 3 giăng/ vương/ vấn
vương/ vướng tơ
7 gãy/tan/ rạn/ nát/
vỡ (vụn)/ xé/ vị
xé
28 cưa 1 bày đặt/ đặt/ để
(lại/ qua bên)
4
đồng hành 1 lạc (đường/ lối/
phương/ vào)
7
loạn nhịp 1 dựng (lại/ rào) 4 ban/ cho/ gửi/
trao/ tặng
36
sánh đơi 1 chứa/ đựng/ ướt 4
bước (đi/ ra)/ vào 8
trăn trở 1 hịa 4 di chuyển/ đi
(đến/ hết/ qua/
tiếp/ tới)/ vụt/
vượt/ băng
(qua)/ lang
thang/ rong ruổi
54
tựa 1 nhận 4 ơm/ siết chặt 8
ủ 1 nghiêng (ngả/
ngửa)/ vật vờ
4
gắn bĩ/ quyện
chặt/ quấn quít
8
hồi sinh/sống lại 2
căng/ phơi 2
ngã vào/ rơi/
rụng
4 gom/ hái/ lượm/
lia/ (thu) nhặt
8
bớt/ cộng vào 2 gặt 4 Total 521
A13. Vietnamese visual terms in metaphorical expressions of love
Visual terms F* Visual terms F Visual terms F
cuộc kiếm tìm 1
bạc (như vơi/ phếch) 2
mưa/ nắng (tỏa) 13
mù lịa 1 tan biến/ tắt (lịm)/
xĩa/ tối (đen)/ u ám
14
đượm 1 cơn mưa 2
giản dị 1 đỏ 2 huy hồng/ lấp lánh/
lộng lẫy/ nồng/ rực
(cháy/ sáng/ rỡ)/ rạng
(ngời/ rỡ)/ xán lạn/
15
mất tích 1 giấu 2
mặt trời 1 giống 2
tro tàn 1 soi (gương/sáng) 2
phủ băng 1 mỏi mịn 2 (đốm/ ngọn) lửa/ nến 17
ngút ngàn 1 u ẩn/ vắng 2 bừng/ cháy (bỏng)/
ngời/ (sáng) tỏ/ le lĩi/
22
nhuộm 1 vẻ đẹp 2
sương khĩi 1 in dấu/ vết 2 dị/ tìm/ kiếm/ thấy/
lơ/ nhìn/ ngắm
28
quạnh hiu 1 lạc mất 2
220
vỡ lở 1 bắt gặp/ gặp nhau 3 sắc/ màu/ xanh/ đỏ/
tím/ nước mây/ tơ
màu/ thắm/ nhạt/
phai/ tươi
28
xem chừng 1 héo (tàn)/ tiêu điều 4
khuất 1 nhen/ thắp (sáng) 4
thầm kín 1 (khơng) ánh sáng 5
thất lạc 1 đốt (cháy/ lửa/nến) 5 Total 207
cái nhìn 2 đẹp/ xinh 8 * F (frequently)
A14. Vietnamese tactile terms in metaphorical expressions of love
Tactile terms Frequency Tactile terms Frequency
chạm 1 ấm (áp)/ cháy bỏng/ đượm
nồng/ đầm ấm/ hừng hực/
nồng (ấm/ thắm)/ nĩng rực/
râm ran nĩng/
22 làm lành 1
cồn cào/ xĩt xa 2
dịu dàng/ êm (ái)/
mềm/ mượt
6
băng/ (buốt/ giá) lạnh/ heo
may/ lạnh căm/ lạnh lùng/
rét buốt/ tê buốt/ se se lạnh
/mát/ nhiệt độ âm
23
nặng/ nhẹ 7
vết (cứa/ xước)/ (vết
/ tổn/ tử) thương
8
bị thương/ đau (đớn/ khổ/
lịng/ nhĩi/ quặn/ thương)/
nhức buốt/ (niềm/ nỗi) đau
39 hơi ấm/ máu nĩng/ lửa
ấm/ đun nĩng /sưởi
ấm/ nguội/ than lạnh
11
Total 120
A15. Vietnamese gustatory terms in metaphorical expressions of love
Gustatory terms Frequency Gustatory terms Frequency
đậm 1 mặn (mịi/ nồng) 3
mật 1 vị 3
chua/ chua chát 2 đắng (cay)/ vị đắng 5
lạt lẽo/ nhạt 2 ngọt (lịm/ ngào) 12
ngon 2 Total 32
A16. Vietnamese olfactory terms in metaphorical expressions of love
Olfactory terms Frequency Olfactory terms Frequency
phai 1 mùi (hương) 4
ngát (hương) 2 thơm (ngát/ tho) 5
ngào ngạt 3 hương 14
nồng nàn 3 Total 32
A17. Vietnamese auditory terms in metaphorical expressions of love
Auditory
terms
F*
Auditory
terms
F Auditory terms F
221
giịn 1 thầm lặng 1 ru 2
hứa 1 từ chối 1 tiếng (nấc/ thì thầm) 4
lặng câm 1 van xin 1 bài hát/ ngũ âm/ nhịp
điệu/ hát/ hĩt
5
mách bảo 1 cung (bậc) 2
nghe 1 dịu dàng 2 lên tiếng/ mời/ gọi 8
nhắc nhở 1 (cơn) dơng 2
rộn (rã/ ràng)/ xơn
xao
15
* F (frequency) Total 49
A18. Vietnamese chronological terms in metaphorical expressions of love
Chronological terms Frequency Chronological terms Frequency
mùa trăng 1 bình minh/ (chiều)
hồng hơn
5
mùa hạ 2
đêm/ngày 3 mùa đơng 5
mùa 3 (mùa/ ngày) xuân 12
mùa thu 3 Total 34
A19. Vietnamese kairotic terms in metaphorical expressions of love
Kairotic terms F* Kairotic terms F Kairotic terms F
buổi ban đầu 1 mùa hái quả/ ngày
thương yêu
2
cũ/ chín/ già/ luống tuổi 12
cuối cùng 1 bắt đầu/ chớm/nở 13
muộn màng 1 bất diệt/ bền lâu/ mãi
mãi/ trăm năm/ vĩnh
viễn/ rền
6
dĩ vãng/ (ngày/ thời)
xưa/ quá khứ
21
ngắn ngủi 1
nụ/ thuở măng tơ 2 chết/ tàn (tạ) 22
tuổi 2 mới (mẻ)/ non/ trẻ
(trung)
12
Total 99
khoảnh khắc/ thống 2 * F (frequency)